Exploring Lifespan Development
Exploring Lifespan Development
Exploring Lifespan Development
F O U R T H E D I T I O N
Laura E. Berk Illinois State University
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Copyright © 2018 by Laura E. Berk. Copyrights © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Berk, Laura E., author. Title: Exploring lifespan development / Laura E. Berk, Illinois State University. Description: Fourth Edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition of the author’s Exploring lifespan development, 2014. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017013903| ISBN 9780134419701 | ISBN 0134419707 | ISBN 9780134420714 | ISBN 0134420675 | ISBN 9780134420677 Subjects: LCSH: Developmental psychology–Textbooks. Classification: LCC BF713 .B466 2017 | DDC 155–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013903
Dedication To David, Peter, and Melissa, with love
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Laura E. Berk is a distinguished professor of psychol- ogy at Illinois State University, where she has taught child, adolescent, and lifespan development for more than three decades. She received her bachelor’s degree in psychology from the University of California, Berkeley, and her mas- ter’s and doctoral degrees in child development and educa-
tional psychology from the University of Chicago. She has been a visiting scholar at Cornell University, UCLA, Stanford University, and the University of South Australia.Exploring Lifespan Development
Berk has published widely on the effects of school environments on children’s devel- opment, the development of private speech, and the role of make-believe play in develop- ment. Her empirical studies have attracted the attention of the general public, leading to contributions to Psychology Today and Scientific American. She has also been featured on National Public Radio’s Morning Edition and in Parents Magazine, Wondertime, and Reader’s Digest. Exploring Lifespan Development
Berk has served as a research editor of Young Children, a consulting editor for Early Childhood Research Quarterly, and as an associate editor of the Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology. She is a frequent contributor to edited volumes, having written the article on social development for The Child: An Encyclopedic Companion and the article on Vygotsky for The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. She is coauthor of the chap- ter on make-believe play and self-regulation in the Sage Handbook of Play in Early Child- hood and the chapter on psychologists writing textbooks in Career Paths in Psychology: Where Your Degree Can Take You, published by the American Psychological Association. Exploring Lifespan Development
Berk’s books include Private Speech: From Social Interaction to Self-Regulation; Scaffolding Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education; Landscapes of Development: An Anthology of Readings; and A Mandate for Playful Learning in Pre- school: Presenting the Evidence. In addition to Exploring Lifespan Development, she is author of the best-selling texts Development Through the Lifespan, Child Development, and Infants, Children, and Adolescents, published by Pearson. Her book for parents and teachers is Awakening Children’s Minds: How Parents and Teachers Can Make a Difference.
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Berk is active in work for children’s causes. She serves on the governing boards of the Illinois Network of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies and of Artolution, an organization devoted to engaging children, youths, and families in collaborative public art projects around the world as a means of promoting resilience and relief from trauma. Berk has been designated a YWCA Woman of Distinction for service in education. She is a fel- low of the American Psychological Association, Division 7: Developmental Psychology. Exploring Lifespan Development
About the Author
iv
S O C I A L I S S U E S : H E A LT H
The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies 42 The Nurse–Family Partnership: Reducing Maternal Stress and
Enhancing Child Development Through Social Support 73 A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies for
Parents and Newborn Babies 82 Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later
Adjustment? 161 Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and
Others 310 Childhood Attachment Patterns and Adult Romantic
Relationships 390 Partner Abuse 397 The Silver Lining in Life’s Adversities 425 Grandparents Rearing Grandchildren: The Skipped-Generation
Family 447 Interventions for Caregivers of Older Adults with Dementia 477 Elder Suicide 497
S O C I A L I S S U E S : E D U C AT I O N
Baby Learning from TV and Video: The Video Deficit Effect 126 Magnet Schools: Equal Access to High-Quality Education 262 Media Multitasking Disrupts Learning 323 How Important Is Academic Engagement in College for Successful
Transition to the Labor Market? 374
B I O L O G Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N T
Resilience 8 The Tutsi Genocide and Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal Stress
to Children 57 The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 85 “Tuning In” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period
for Culture-Specific Learning 111 Infantile Amnesia 130 Parental Depression and Child Development 149 Development of Shyness and Sociability 153 Autism and Theory of Mind 193 Transgender Children 224 Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246 Bullies and Their Victims 280 Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency 349 Telomere Length: A Marker of the Impact of Life Circumstances on
Biological Aging 357 Anti-Aging Effects of Dietary Calorie Restriction 416 What Factors Promote Psychological Well-Being in Midlife? 441 What Can We Learn About Aging from Centenarians? 462 Experience Corps: Promoting Retired Adults’ Physical and Mental
Health and Children’s Academic Success 514 Music as Palliative Care for Dying Patients 530
C U LT U R A L I N F L U E N C E S
The Baby Boomers Reshape the Life Course 10 Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New Land 26 Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 99 Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 134 Why Are Children from Asian Cultures Advanced in Drawing
Skills? 179 Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate in
Adult Work 188 Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment 215 The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 254 Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children 289 Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents 333 Is Emerging Adulthood Really a Distinct Stage of Development? 385 Cultural Variations in Mourning Behavior 539
A P P LY I N G W H AT W E K N OW
Do’s and Don’ts for a Healthy Pregnancy 74 Reasons to Breastfeed 101 Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Infant and Toddler Child
Care 137 Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control 165 Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood
Programs 198 Positive Parenting 217 Signs of High-Quality Education in Elementary School 259 Helping Children Adjust to Their Parents’ Divorce 286 Handling Consequences of Teenagers’ New Cognitive
Capacities 319 Supporting Healthy Identity Development 334 Preventing Sexual Coercion 369 Resources That Foster Resilience in Emerging Adulthood 384 Strategies That Help Dual-Earner Couples Combine Work and Family
Roles 407 Managing Stress 422 Relieving the Stress of Caring for an Aging Parent 450 Increasing the Effectiveness of Educational Experiences for Older
Adults 486 Fostering Adaptation to Widowhood in Late Adulthood 507 Suggestions for Resolving Grief After a Loved One Dies 538
Features at a Glance
Contents A Personal Note to Students xiii
Preface for Instructors xiv
P A R T I
THEORY AND RESEARCH IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
c h a p t e r 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies 1
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary Field 3
Basic Issues 3 Continuous or Discontinuous Development? 4 One Course of Development or Many? 4 Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? 5 Exploring Lifespan Development
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View 5 Development Is Lifelong 5 Development Is Multidimensional and Multidirectional 6 Development Is Plastic 6 Development Is Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces 7
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Resilience 8
Scientific Beginnings 9 Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study 9
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Baby Boomers Reshape the Life Course 10
The Normative Period 11 The Mental Testing Movement 11
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories 11 The Psychoanalytic Perspective 11 Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 13 Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 14
Recent Theoretical Perspectives 16 Information Processing 16 Developmental Neuroscience 17 Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 17 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 18 Ecological Systems Theory 19
Comparing Theories 21
Studying Development 21 Common Research Methods 21 General Research Designs 25
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New Land 26
Designs for Studying Development 28
Ethics in Lifespan Research 31
Summary 32
Important Terms and Concepts 34
P A R T I I
FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
c h a p t e r 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations 35
Genetic Foundations 36 The Genetic Code 36 The Sex Cells 37 Boy or Girl? 37 Multiple Offspring 37 Patterns of Gene–Gene Interactions 38 Chromosomal Abnormalities 40
Reproductive Choices 41 Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Diagnosis 41
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies 42
Adoption 44
Environmental Contexts for Development 45 The Family 45 Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning 47 Poverty 47 Affluence 48 Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and Schools 48 The Cultural Context 50
Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity and Environment 53
The Question, “How Much?” 53 The Question, “How?” 54
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Tutsi Genocide and Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal Stress to Children 57
Summary 58 Important Terms and Concepts 59
c h a p t e r 3 Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn Baby 60
Prenatal Development 61 Conception 61 Germinal Period 62 Period of the Embryo 63 Period of the Fetus 64
Prenatal Environmental Influences 66 Teratogens 66 Other Maternal Factors 71
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Nurse–Family Partnership: Reducing Maternal Stress and Enhancing Child Development Through Social Support 73
The Importance of Prenatal Health Care 73
v
vi Contents
Childbirth 75 The Stages of Childbirth 75 The Baby’s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery 76 Assessing the Newborn’s Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale 76
Approaches to Childbirth 77 Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth 77 Home Delivery 77
Medical Interventions 78 Fetal Monitoring 78 Labor and Delivery Medication 78 Cesarean Delivery 79
Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants 79 Preterm versus Small-for-Date Infants 79 Consequences for Caregiving 79 Interventions for Preterm Infants 80
The Newborn Baby’s Capacities 81 Reflexes 81
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 82
States of Arousal 83
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 85
Sensory Capacities 86
Adjusting to the New Family Unit 88
Summary 89
Important Terms and Concepts 90
P A R T I I I
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD: THE FIRST TWO YEARS
c h a p t e r 4 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 91
Body Growth 92 Changes in Body Size and Muscle–Fat Makeup 92 Changes in Body Proportions 92 Individual and Group Differences 92
Brain Development 93 Development of Neurons 94 Measures of Brain Functioning 94 Development of the Cerebral Cortex 96 Sensitive Periods in Brain Development 97 Changing States of Arousal 98
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 99
Influences on Early Physical Growth 100 Heredity 100 Nutrition 100 Malnutrition 102
Learning Capacities 103 Classical Conditioning 103 Operant Conditioning 103 Habituation 104 Imitation 104 Exploring Lifespan Development
Motor Development 106 The Sequence of Motor Development 106 Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems 106 Fine-Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping 108
Perceptual Development 109 Hearing 109 Vision 110
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT “Tuning In” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific Learning 111
Intermodal Perception 114 Understanding Perceptual Development 115
Summary 116
Important Terms and Concepts 117
c h a p t e r 5 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 118
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 119 Piaget’s Ideas About Cognitive Change 119 The Sensorimotor Stage 120 Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development 122 Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage 125
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Baby Learning from TV and Video: The Video Deficit Effect 126
Information Processing 127 A General Model of Information Processing 127 Attention 129 Memory 129 Categorization 130
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Infantile Amnesia 130
Evaluation of Information-Processing Findings 132
The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development 132
Individual Differences in Early Mental Development 133 Infant and Toddler Intelligence Tests 134
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 134
Early Environment and Mental Development 135 Early Intervention for At-Risk Infants and Toddlers 138
Language Development 139 Theories of Language Development 139 Getting Ready to Talk 140 First Words 141 The Two-Word Utterance Phase 141 Individual Differences 141 Supporting Early Language Development 142
Summary 143
Important Terms and Concepts 144
Contents vii
c h a p t e r 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 145
Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality 146 Basic Trust versus Mistrust 146 Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 146
Emotional Development 147 Basic Emotions 147 Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 148
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Parental Depression and Child Development 149
Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions 150 Beginnings of Emotional Self-Regulation 150
Temperament and Development 151 The Structure of Temperament 151 Measuring Temperament 152 Stability of Temperament 152
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Development of Shyness and Sociability 153
Genetic and Environmental Influences 154 Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model 155
Development of Attachment 155 Bowlby’s Ethological Theory 156 Measuring the Security of Attachment 157 Stability of Attachment 158 Cultural Variations 158 Factors That Affect Attachment Security 158 Multiple Attachments 160
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 161
Attachment and Later Development 162
Self-Development 163 Self-Awareness 163 Categorizing the Self 164 Self-Control 164
Summary 166 Important Terms and Concepts 167
MILESTONES Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 168
P A R T I V
EARLY CHILDHOOD: TWO TO SIX YEARS
c h a p t e r 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 170
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 171 A Changing Body and Brain 171
Skeletal Growth 171 Brain Development 171
Influences on Physical Growth and Health 174 Heredity and Hormones 174 Nutrition 174 Infectious Disease 175 Childhood Injuries 176
Motor Development 177 Gross-Motor Development 177 Fine-Motor Development 177 Individual Differences in Motor Skills 178
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Why Are Children from Asian Cultures Advanced in Drawing Skills? 179
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 180 Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Stage 180
Advances in Mental Representation 180 Make-Believe Play 180 Symbol–Real-World Relations 181 Limitations of Preoperational Thought 182 Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought 183 Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage 185
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 186 Private Speech 186 Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition 187 Vygotsky’s View of Make Believe Play 187 Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory 187
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate in Adult Work 188
Information Processing 189 Executive Function 189 Memory 190 The Young Child’s Theory of Mind 192
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Autism and Theory of Mind 193
Early Childhood Literacy 194 Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning 194
Individual Differences in Mental Development 195 Home Environment and Mental Development 195 Preschool, Kindergarten, and Child Care 196 Educational Media 197
Language Development 199 Vocabulary 199 Grammar 200 Conversation 201 Supporting Language Development in Early Childhood 201
Summary 202
Important Terms and Concepts 204
c h a p t e r 8 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood 205
Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt 206
Self-Understanding 207 Foundations of Self-Concept 207 Emergence of Self-Esteem 207
Exploring Lifespan Development
viii Contents
Emotional Development 208 Understanding Emotion 208 Emotional Self-Regulation 208 Self-Conscious Emotions 209 Empathy and Sympathy 209
Peer Relations 210 Advances in Peer Sociability 210 First Friendships 211 Peer Relations and School Readiness 212 Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations 212
Foundations of Morality and Aggression 213 The Psychoanalytic Perspective 213 Social Learning Theory 214
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment 215
The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective 216 The Other Side of Morality: Development of Aggression 217
Gender Typing 220 Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behavior 220 Biological Influences on Gender Typing 221 Environmental Influences on Gender Typing 221 Gender Identity 222 Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Young Children 223
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Transgender Children 224
Child Rearing and Emotional and Social Development 225 Styles of Child Rearing 225 What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective? 226 Cultural Variations 227 Child Maltreatment 227
Summary 230
Important Terms and Concepts 231
MILESTONES Development in Early Childhood 232
P A R T V
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: SIX TO ELEVEN YEARS
c h a p t e r 9 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 234
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 235 Body Growth 235
Health Issues 235 Nutrition 236 Overweight and Obesity 236 Illnesses 238Exploring Lifespan Development
Motor Development and Play 239 Gross-Motor Development 239 Fine-Motor Development 239 Sex Differences 239 Games with Rules 240
Shadows of Our Evolutionary Past 241 Physical Education 241
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 242 Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Stage 242
Concrete Operational Thought 242 Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought 243 Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought 243
Information Processing 245 Executive Function 245
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246
Memory Strategies 247 Knowledge and Memory 248 Culture and Memory Strategies 248 The School-Age Child’s Theory of Mind 248 Cognitive Self-Regulation 249 Applications of Information Processing to Academic Learning 249
Individual Differences in Mental Development 250 Defining and Measuring Intelligence 250 Other Efforts to Define Intelligence 251 Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ 53
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 254
Language Development 256 Vocabulary and Grammar 257 Pragmatics 257 Learning Two Languages 258
Learning in School 259 Educational Philosophies 259 Teacher–Student Interaction and Grouping Practices 260 Teaching Children with Special Needs 261
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Magnet Schools: Equal Access to High-Quality Education 262
How Well Educated Are U.S. Children? 263
Summary 265 Important Terms and Concepts 267
c h a p t e r 1 0 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood 268
Erikson’s Theory: Industry versus Inferiority 269 Self-Understanding 269
Self-Concept 269 Self-Esteem 270 Influences on Self-Esteem 270
Emotional Development 273 Self-Conscious Emotions 273 Emotional Understanding 274 Emotional Self-Regulation 274
Moral Development 274 Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding 275 Understanding Individual Rights 275 Understanding Diversity and Inequality 276
Contents ix
Peer Relations 277 Peer Groups 277 Friendships 278 Peer Acceptance 279
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Bullies and Their Victims 280
Gender Typing 281 Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs 281 Gender Identity and Behavior 281
Family Influences 282 Parent–Child Relationships 283 Siblings 283 Only Children 283 Divorce 284 Blended Families 286 Maternal Employment and Dual-Earner Families 287
Some Common Problems of Development 288 Fears and Anxieties 288
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children 289
Child Sexual Abuse 290 Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood 290
Summary 291
Important Terms and Concepts 293
MILESTONES Development in Middle Childhood 294
P A R T V I
ADOLESCENCE: THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD
c h a p t e r 1 1 Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence 296
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 297 Conceptions of Adolescence 297
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood 298 Hormonal Changes 298 Body Growth 298 Motor Development and Physical Activity 299 Sexual Maturation 300 Individual Differences in Pubertal Growth 300 Brain Development 302
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events 303 Reactions to Pubertal Changes 303 Pubertal Change, Emotion, and Social Behavior 304 Pubertal Timing 304
Health Issues 306 Nutritional Needs 306 Eating Disorders 306 Sexuality 307 Exploring Lifespan Development
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and Others 310
Sexually Transmitted Infections 311 Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood 311 Substance Use and Abuse 313
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 314 Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage 315
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning 315 Propositional Thought 315 Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought 316
An Information-Processing View of Adolescent Cognitive Development 317
Scientific Reasoning: Coordinating Theory with Evidence 317 How Scientific Reasoning Develops 318
Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes 318 Self-Consciousness and Self-Focusing 318 Idealism and Criticism 319 Decision Making 319
Learning in School 320 School Transitions 320 Academic Achievement 321
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Media Multitasking Disrupts Learning 323
Dropping Out 324
Summary 325 Important Terms and Concepts 327
c h a p t e r 1 2 Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence 328
Erikson’s Theory: Identity versus Role Confusion 329 Self-Understanding 330
Changes in Self-Concept 330 Changes in Self-Esteem 330 Paths to Identity 331 Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being 331 Influences on Identity Development 332
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents 333
Moral Development 334 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 334 Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning? 336 Coordinating Moral, Social-Conventional, and Personal
Concerns 336 Influences on Moral Reasoning 337 Moral Reasoning and Behavior 338 Religious Involvement and Moral Development 338 Further Challenges to Kohlberg’s Theory 339
The Family 340 Parent–Adolescent Relationships 340 Family Circumstances 341 Siblings 341
Peer Relations 342 Friendships 342 Cliques and Crowds 344 Dating 345
x Contents
Problems of Development 346 Depression 346 Suicide 347 Delinquency 348
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency 349
Summary 350
Important Terms and Concepts 351
MILESTONES Development in Adolescence 352
P A R T V I I
EARLY ADULTHOOD
c h a p t e r 1 3 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood 354
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 355 Biological Aging Is Under Way in Early Adulthood 355
Aging at the Level of DNA and Body Cells 355 Aging at the Level of Tissues and Organs 356
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Telomere Length: A Marker of the Impact of Life Circumstances on Biological Aging 357
Physical Changes 358 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems 358 Motor Performance 358 Immune System 360 Reproductive Capacity 360
Health and Fitness 361 Nutrition 362 Exercise 363 Substance Abuse 364 Sexuality 365 Psychological Stress 369
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 370 Changes in the Structure of Thought 370
Epistemic Cognition 370 Pragmatic Thought and Cognitive-Affective Complexity 371
Expertise and Creativity 372
The College Experience 373 Psychological Impact of Attending College 373 Dropping Out 374
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION How Important Is Academic Engagement in College for Successful Transition to the Labor Market? 374
Vocational Choice 375 Selecting a Vocation 375 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice 375 Vocational Preparation of Non-College-Bound Young Adults 377
Summary 378
Important Terms and Concepts 379
c h a p t e r 1 4 Emotional and Social Development in Early Adulthood 380
A Gradual Transition: Emerging Adulthood 381 Unprecedented Exploration 381 Cultural Change, Cultural Variation, and Emerging Adulthood 383 Risk and Resilience in Emerging Adulthood 384
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Is Emerging Adulthood Really a Distinct Stage of Development? 385
Erikson’s Theory: Intimacy versus Isolation 386
Other Theories of Adult Psychosocial Development 387 Levinson’s Seasons of Life 387 Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life 387 The Social Clock 388
Close Relationships 388 Romantic Love 389
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Childhood Attachment Patterns and Adult Romantic Relationships 390
Friendships 391
The Family Life Cycle 393 Leaving Home 393 Joining of Families in Marriage 394 Parenthood 396
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Partner Abuse 397
The Diversity of Adult Lifestyles 400 Singlehood 400 Cohabitation 401 Childlessness 402 Divorce and Remarriage 402 Varied Styles of Parenthood 403
Career Development 405 Establishing a Career 405 Women and Ethnic Minorities 405 Combining Work and Family 406
Summary 408
Important Terms and Concepts 409
MILESTONES Development in Early Adulthood 410 Exploring Lifespan Development
P A R T V I I I
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
c h a p t e r 1 5 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood 412
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 413 Physical Changes 413
Vision 414 Hearing 414
Contents xi
Skin 415 Muscle–Fat Makeup 415 Skeleton 415 Reproductive System 415
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Anti-Aging Effects of Dietary Calorie Restriction 416
Health and Fitness 418 Sexuality 419 Illness and Disability 419 Hostility and Anger 421
Adapting to the Physical Challenges of Midlife 422 Stress Management 422 Exercise 423 Hardiness 424 Gender and Aging: A Double Standard 424
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Silver Lining in Life’s Adversities 425
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 424 Changes in Mental Abilities 425
Cohort Effects 426 Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence 426
Information Processing 427 Speed of Processing 427 Executive Function 428 Memory Strategies 429 Practical Problem Solving and Expertise 430 Creativity 430
Adult Learners: Becoming a Student in Midlife 431 Characteristics of Returning Students 431 Supporting Returning Students 431
Summary 432
Important Terms and Concepts 433
c h a p t e r 1 6 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Adulthood 434
Erikson’s Theory: Generativity versus Stagnation 435
Other Theories of Psychosocial Development in Midlife 437 Levinson’s Seasons of Life 437 Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life 438 Is There a Midlife Crisis? 438
Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality 549 Possible Selves 439 Self-Acceptance, Autonomy, and Environmental Mastery 439 Coping with Daily Stressors 440 Gender Identity 440
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT What Factors Promote Psychological Well-Being in Midlife? 441
Individual Differences in Personality Traits 442
Relationships at Midlife 443 Marriage and Divorce 443 Changing Parent–Child Relationships 444
Grandparenthood 445 Middle-Aged Children and Their Aging Parents 446
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Grandparents Rearing Grandchildren: The Skipped-Generation Family 447
Siblings 449 Friendships 450
Vocational Life 451 Job Satisfaction 451 Career Development 452 Career Change at Midlife 453 Planning for Retirement 453
Summary 454
Important Terms and Concepts 455
MILESTONES Development in Middle Adulthood 456
P A R T I X
LATE ADULTHOOD
c h a p t e r 1 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 458
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 459 Life Expectancy 459
Variations in Life Expectancy 460 Life Expectancy in Late Adulthood 461
Physical Changes 461 Nervous System 461
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT What Can We Learn About Aging from Centenarians? 462
Sensory Systems 463 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems 465 Immune System 465 Sleep 465 Physical Appearance and Mobility 466 Adapting to Physical Changes of Late Adulthood 467
Health, Fitness, and Disability 468 Nutrition and Exercise 469 Sexuality 470 Physical Disabilities 471 Mental Disabilities 473
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Interventions for Caregivers of Older Adults with Dementia 477
Long-Term Health Care 478
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 479 Memory 479
Explicit versus Implicit Memory 480 Associative Memory 480 Remote Memory 481 Prospective Memory 481
xii Contents
Language Processing 482
Problem Solving 483
Wisdom 483
Factors Related to Cognitive Maintenance and Change 484
Cognitive Interventions 485
Lifelong Learning 486
Summary 487
Important Terms and Concepts 489
c h a p t e r 1 8 Emotional and Social Development in Late Adulthood 490
Erikson’s Theory: Ego Integrity versus Despair 491
Other Theories of Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood 492
Peck’s Tasks of Ego Integrity and Joan Erikson’s Gerotranscendence 492
The Positivity Effect 492 Reminiscence 493
Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality 493 Secure and Multifaceted Self-Concept 494 Agreeableness, Acceptance of Change, and Openness to
Experience 494 Spirituality and Religiosity 494
Contextual Influences on Psychological Well-Being 495 Control versus Dependency 495 Physical Health 496
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Elder Suicide 497
Negative Life Changes 498 Social Support 498
A Changing Social World 498 Social Theories of Aging 499 Social Contexts of Aging: Communities, Neighborhoods, and
Housing 500
Relationships in Late Adulthood 503 Marriage 503 Lesbian and Gay Couples 504 Divorce, Remarriage, and Cohabitation 505 Widowhood 506 Never-Married, Childless Older Adults 506 Siblings 507 Friendships 508 Relationships with Adult Children 508 Elder Maltreatment 509
Retirement 511 The Decision to Retire 511 Adjustment to Retirement 512 Leisure and Volunteer Activities 513
Successful Aging 513
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Experience Corps: Promoting Retired Adults’ Physical and Mental Health and Children’s Academic Success 514
Summary 515
Important Terms and Concepts 517
MILESTONES Development in Late Adulthood 518
P A R T X
THE END OF LIFE
c h a p t e r 1 9 Death, Dying, and Bereavement 520
How We Die 521 Physical Changes 521 Defining Death 522 Death with Dignity 522
Attitudes Toward Death 523
Thinking and Emotions of Dying People 525 Do Stages of Dying Exist? 525 Contextual Influences on Adaptations to Dying 526
A Place to Die 528 Home 528 Hospital 528 Nursing Home 529 The Hospice Approach 529
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Music as Palliative Care for Dying Patients 530
The Right to Die 531 Ending Life-Sustaining Treatment 531 Medical Aid-in-Dying 533 Voluntary Euthanasia 534
Bereavement: Coping with the Death of a Loved One 535 Grief Process 535 Personal and Situational Variations 536 Bereavement Interventions 538
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variations in Mourning Behavior 539
Death Education 540
Summary 541
Important Terms and Concepts 542
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
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