When is frustration more likely to lead to aggression

When is frustration more likely to lead to aggression

1. When is frustration more likely to lead to aggression? When is it more likely to produce stronger reactions (e.g., violence)? Discuss possible solutions to this problem, including anger management programs.
2. How do people’s attributions regarding the causes of another person’s plight influence their willingness to help that person? Is this “typical response” justified within a Christian framework? Why or why not?

Choose a recent national or international news report of an aggressive act performed by an individual or group. Research available background details on the individual or group and supporting details. In 750-1,000 words, do the following:

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1. Analyze one of the four theoretical models (biological, drive, social learning, or general aggression model) to explain factors that could have contributed to the aggressive behavior described in the news report.
2. Discuss preventative measures that could have been employed.

Use two to three scholarly sources to support your thinking, your textbook can be used as one of the resources.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guid

You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.

Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.

Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.

The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.

Memory Foundations and Applications

Memory Foundations and Applications

Memory

Memory Foundations and Applications

Third Edition

Bennett L. Schwartz Florida International University

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Brief Contents 1. Preface 2. 1. Introduction to the Study of Memory 3. 2. Memory and the Brain 4. 3. Working Memory 5. 4. Episodic Memory 6. 5. Semantic Memory 7. 6. Visual Memory 8. 7. Autobiographical Memory 9. 8. False Memory

10. 9. Metamemory 11. 10. Memory Disorders 12. 11. Memory in Childhood 13. 12. Memory in Older Adults 14. 13. Memory Improvement and Learning Efficiency: A User’s Guide 15. Glossary 16. References 17. Author Index 18. Subject Index 19. About the Author

Detailed Contents Preface 1 Introduction to the Study of Memory

The Science of Memory The History of Memory Research

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) Mary Calkins (1863–1930) Behaviorism Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969) Endel Tulving (1927– ) Cognitive Psychology Elizabeth Loftus (1944– ) Cognitive Neuroscience

Section Quiz Methods of Studying Memory Memory Measures

Recall Recognition Implicit Memory Tests Reaction Time Source Judgments Metamemory Judgments Summary of Memory Measures Neuropsychology Animal Models Neuroimaging

Section Summary and Quiz Improving Memory Efficiency Themes for the Book Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

2 Memory and the Brain Old Questions, New Answers

Brain and Memory Neurons

Neurotransmitters Structures of the Human Brain

Subcortical Structures Cortical Areas of the Brain Associated With Memory

Interim Summary and Quiz Methods in Cognitive Neuroscience

EEG (Electroencephalography) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technologies Brain Stimulation Techniques

Section Quiz Neuropsychology: Memory Deficits and Amnesia Chemical Enhancement of Memory Olfaction, Memory, and the Brain Memory, Music, and the Brain Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

3 Working Memory What Is Working Memory? Some Terminological Clarifications Sensory Memory Working Memory Capacity

Pronunciation Time The Duration of Information in Working Memory The Serial Position Curve and Its Implication for Working Memory Section Summary and Quiz The Working Memory Model of Baddeley Working Memory Systems

The Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketchpad The Episodic Buffer

The Central Executive Section Summary and Quiz Working Memory and the Brain Applications of Working Memory

Reading Fluency Verbal Fluency Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Alzheimer’s Disease

Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

4 Episodic Memory Evidence for the Episodic/Semantic Distinction

Behavioral Evidence Neuropsychological Evidence Evidence From Neuroimaging

Section Summary and Quiz Memory Processes: Encoding, Representation, and Retrieval (Part I)

Encoding in Episodic Memory Levels of Processing Applications of Levels of Processing The Self-Reference Effect Survival Processing The Generation Effect Organization Distinctiveness

Section Summary and Quiz Memory Processes: Encoding, Representation, and Retrieval (Part II)

Retrieval From Episodic Memory Encoding Specificity Inhibition in Episodic Memory Retrieval-Induced Inhibition Part-Set Cueing

Directed Forgetting

Prospective Memory Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

5 Semantic Memory Associative Structures in Semantic Memory Semantic Priming and Lexical Decision Tasks Sentence Verification Tasks Bilingual Representation Section Summary and Quiz Concepts and Categories

Categories Are Fuzzy Family Resemblance Exemplar Theory and Feature Comparison Theory Prototype Theory Situated Simulation Theory

Section Summary and Quiz Schemas and Scripts

Reconstruction of Events Semantic Memory and Music Language, Lexical Memory, and Semantic Memory Section Quiz Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

6 Visual Memory Visual Memory: Recognition and Recall Representation and Imagery

Shepard and Metzler’s Mental Rotation Experiment Neuroimaging and the Analog View

Section Summary and Quiz Other Topics in Visual Memory Photographic Memory: Reality or Fantasy? Cognitive Maps Memory for Faces

Simultaneous and Sequential Lineups in Eyewitness Memory Own-Race Bias The Neuroscience of Face Memory

Section Summary and Quiz Application of Visual Imagery to Mnemonics

Method of Loci Keyword Technique Pegword Mnemonic Interactive Versus Bizarre Imagery

Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

7 Autobiographical Memory Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory

Event-Specific Memories General Events Lifetime Periods The Working Self

Section Summary and Quiz Childhood Amnesia

Psychodynamic View Age-Related Changes in Self-Concept Neurological Transitions in Memory Systems Influence of Language on Memory Development Childhood Amnesia May Result From Multiple Causes

Flashbulb Memories Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories Theories of Flashbulb Memory Formation

Collaborative Memory Section Summary and Quiz Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and the Reminiscence Bump Aspects of Autobiographical Memory

Field and Observer Memories Involuntary Memories

Disputed Memories Music and Autobiographical Memory Sense of Smell and Autobiographical Memory

The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

8 False Memory Correspondence, Accuracy, and Amount Source Monitoring Methods of Studying False Memory

Deese-Roediger-McDermott Procedure (DRM) Visual False Memory Procedure False Memory Induction Procedure Imagination Inflation Fabricated or Altered Evidence

Section Summary and Quiz Hypnosis and Memory Recovered Memory: The Reality of Repression

Mechanisms of Repression and Recovery Failure to Rehearse Retrieval Suppression

False Memories and Legal Psychology Eyewitness Testimony

Effects of Wording on Memory of an Accident The Misinformation Effect

Explanations for the Misinformation Effect Section Summary and Quiz The Cognitive Interview: More Information Without Suggestion Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

9 Metamemory What Is Metamemory? Theories of Metamemory

Direct-Access Theories Indirect or Inferential Theories

Section Summary and Quiz Types of Judgments

Tip-of-the-Tongue States Brain Mechanisms Feeling of Knowing Mechanisms of Feeling of Knowing Brain Mechanisms of Feeling of Knowing Neuropsychology and Feeling of Knowing Judgments of Learning Factors That Influence Judgments of Learning Brain Mechanisms for Judgments of Learning

Section Summary and Quiz Control Processes in Metamemory

Labor-in-Vain Effect Region of Proximal Learning Control Processes at Retrieval TOTs and Retrieval Time A Note on Accuracy

Other Kinds of Metamemory Retrospective Confidence The Déjà vu Experience

Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

10 Memory Disorders What Is Amnesia? Case Studies of Amnesia

Patient HM Clive Wearing

Anterograde Amnesia Implicit Memory in the Amnesic Syndrome Awareness in the Amnesic Syndrome Simulated Anterograde Amnesia

Section Summary and Quiz

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Retrograde Amnesia Electroconvulsive Therapy Korsakoff’s Disease

Frontal Syndrome Behavioral Issues in Frontal Patients

Transient Global Amnesia Short-Term Memory Amnesia Reduplicative Paramnesia and Capgrass Syndrome Section Summary and Quiz Psychogenic Amnesia

Dissociative Amnesia Dissociative Fugue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Repression

Alzheimer’s Disease Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease

Memory Rehabilitation Summary Key Terms Review Questions Online Resources

11 Memory in Childhood Memory in Infancy

Visual Recognition Nonnutritive Sucking Conjugate Reinforcement Technique Imitation Memory for Language in Infancy Semantic Memory Episodic Memory

Section Summary and Quiz Memory in Early Childhood

Why Does Memory Improve During Early Childhood? Memory Strategies View Memory Efficiency View Episodic Memory

Assignment: Employee Brand Ambassadors: A Key To Motivation & Performance

Assignment: Employee Brand Ambassadors: A Key To Motivation & Performance

When implemented correctly, a corporate brand ambassador program can be a powerful tool to improve organizational culture; increase employee motivation, retention and performance; and change external company perception. As an OD consultant, a brand ambassador program may be a tool that you consider implementing to create positive change within a client company.

For this Assignment, you select a company and research their brand ambassador program. As you research your selected company, identify how the brand ambassador program impacts the organization and consider elements of the program that you see as especially effective or that you may choose to change.

To prepare:

Choose a company from the list below and research their employee brand ambassador program.

• Adobe
• Coca-Cola
• Deloitte
• GE
• Nokia

By Day 7

Submit a 2- to 3-page paper written in APA format and style in which you evaluate your selected company’s brand ambassador program and the impact it has on employees, the organizational culture, external perceptions, and overall company performance. How can shared values be promoted via brand ambassadors? As an OD consultant, is this a model you might recommend to your own clients? If so, how might you initiate and implement a brand ambassador program for a client organization?

Support your Application Assignment with specific references to all resources used in its preparation.

Submit your assignment by Day 7 of Week 5.

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You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.

Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.

Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.

The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.

Reflection With Video And Book

Reflection With Video And Book

The Harlem Children’s Zone is an example of a Community Intervention Program, which specifically uses a block association model.

Watch the video below and reflect upon what components of Community Intervention Programming were incorporated (said another way, what made this program successful).

reflecting on how this program may effect children’s stress, coping, social support and resilience. More specifically, address the following points

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1. Describe the Harlem Children’s Initiative
2. Describe which Community Intervention Components (from Ch. 5) were incorporated into the Harlem Children’s Initiative, and thus made it successful
3. Explain how these program components would affect community members’ (i.e., children’s) stress, coping, social support and resilience (from Ch. 3)

• FILE_8902.pdf

You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.

Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.

Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.

The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.

Gender Age Time In Experiment

Gender Age Time In Experiment

data

data by gender

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Vignette Analysis

Vignette Analysis

This assignment provides the opportunity for you to demonstrate your ability to apply the concepts covered throughout the course. This assignment MUST be typed, double-spaced, in APA style, and must be written at graduate level English. You must integrate the material presented in the text and cite your work according to APA format.
Culture and Legal/Ethical consideration are required. [This information can be found in Part I as well as in chapters throughout the course text]. You are also encouraged to use outside cultural resources to enhance your understanding. Vignette Analysis
Use the Case of Stan and Case of Gwen as a guide to theoretical application, referencing in APA style. Vignette Analysis

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See Sample Vignette Analysis located under Resources

Your response to each vignette should be 1-2 pages per vignette for a total of 5-6 pages for the entire assignment plus a title and reference page.
Do not copy and paste the vignettes into your written response
Vignette One
Jack, a 28-year old man, tells you: “Most of my life I have felt pushed and pulled. My father pushed me into school, sports, and so forth, and over the years my resentment grew for him. He was always directing and controlling my life and beating me when I challenged his authority. My mother always gave me a warm, unconditional love and tried to pull me under her protective wing. My parents divorced when I was 18 and without parental control I began a life of self-will in my relationships and in my use of drugs and alcohol. On graduating from college, I rejected my father’s wishes to pursue a career and returned to school to seek another degree. In some ways it’s just a place to be that I like. Most of my life revolves around living for today, a hedonistic style that has no concreteness of goals and aspirations, with a lack of definition of `what a man should be.’ I float in and out of people’s lives. They see an image of me as a despoiler of women, a drug freak, and a cold bastard. My fear is that I am nothing more than that image, that I am empty inside. I want to be able to open up and let people see the warmer, more sensitive sides of me, but I have terrible difficulty doing that. I have a strong need to become close and intimate with others, yet I never let myself become vulnerable because I fear being dependent on them and trapped by their love.”
Assume that Jack comes to you for personal therapy and that all you know about him is what he told you above. Answer the following questions on how you might proceed with Jack within a Psychoanalytic frame of reference:
1.    As a psychoanalytic therapist, do you think that Jack’s current unwillingness to become vulnerable to others out of his fear of “being dependent on them and trapped by their love” has much to do with his mother’s unconditional love? How might this experience be related to his relationships with women now?

2.    Jack describes his father as an authoritarian, controlling, and cruel man who apparently had conventional ideas of what he wanted Jack to become. What are the underlying psychological aspects that you see involved with Jack’s rejection of his father’s wishes? How might you use psychoanalytic counseling theory to explain the fact that in many ways he became what his father did not want him to become?
Vignette Two
Alice and Javier, both in their early 30’s, have been married for 7 years and have three young children. Javier is a Latino, and Alice is a Pacific Islander. Neither his family nor hers was very supportive of marrying a person “not of your own kind.” Consequently, Javier and Alice do not see their parents very often. She feels a real gap without this connection with her family; he maintains that if that’s the way his family wants it, so be it. They have been having a great deal of difficulty as a family for several years. Alice seems to think that Javier is far too strict with the children, demanding full obedience without question. He admits he is a hard taskmaster, but he says that’s the way it was for him in his family.
Alice would like to get a job, yet she stops herself from considering it because Javier becomes extremely upset when she even mentions the issue. His response is: “Why can’t you be satisfied with what you have? It reflects poorly on me if you have to go outside and get work!” Alice has tended to assume the role of keeping peace in the family, almost at any price. This means not doing many of the things she would like to do, lest it lead to an escalation of the conflicts between them. Alice has finally decided that even if it rocks the boat and causes a storm, she cannot continue living as she has. She has asked Javier to go to counseling with her. He has agreed, reluctantly, mostly to understand her better and “do whatever can be done to help her.”
Assume that Alice and Javier come to you for personal therapy and that all you know about them is what they told you above. Answer the following questions on how you might proceed with this couple within an Adlerian frame of reference:
1.    As an Adlerian therapist you will want to make sure that your goals and the goals of Alice and of Javier are in alignment. How might you go about this? What if Javier and Alice have different goals? How might the fact that he is a Latino and she is a Pacific Islander be significant in setting goals?

2.    If you had to speculate at this moment, what are Alice’s “basic mistakes”? Javier’s?  What specific Adlerian techniques might you be most inclined to employ in working with this couple?
Vignette Three
Paul, a 30-year old gay man, has recently found out that he has AIDS. He knows that the disease is serious and likely requires treatment throughout his life. Paul is seeking counseling to help him deal with accepting his diagnosis without resentment and hostility. He is filled with rage over his fate; he keeps asking why this had to happen to him. He tells you that at first, he could not believe the diagnosis was correct. When he finally got several more professional opinions that confirmed he had AIDS, he began to feel more and more anger—toward God, toward his healthy friends, whom he envied, and generally toward the unfairness of his situation. He tells you that he was just starting to live the lifestyle he denied himself all of his adult life and that he had a direction he was going in professionally. Now everything will have to change. After he tells you this, he is sitting across from you waiting for your response.

Assume that Paul comes to you for personal therapy and that all you know about him is what he told you above. Answer the following questions on how you might proceed with Paul within an Existential/Person Centered frame of reference:
1.    Paul tells you that one of the reasons he is coming to see you is his desire to accept his fate. How would you work with him to gain this acceptance? What specific things might you do to help him find ways of living the rest of his life to its fullest?

2.    Do you see any possibilities for helping Paul find meaning in his life in the face of death? What diversity issues and ethical considerations might arise in your work with Paul?
Corey, G.   (2017).   Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy.   (10th ed.).   Belmont, CA   Cengage.    ISBN: 9781305263727

The Pure Food and Drug Act

The Pure Food and Drug Act

Review the Historical Timeline: Regulated Substances media piece. Read the list of major historical events listed below and select one to examine for this assignment.

1. The Pure Food and Drug Act
2. The Harrison Act
3. Prohibition
4. End of Prohibition
5. The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act
6. The implementation of substance use prevention programs (D.A.R.E., Just Say No, etc.)

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Write a 750-1,050-word paper about the selected historical event. Include the following in your presentation:

1. A description of the event
2. The history of the law(s) related to the drug
3. The impact of the drug on society to include how the legal status of the drug has impacted society
4. A description of how an understanding of the history and legality of the drug from the event has impacted the counseling profession
5. A minimum of two scholarly references

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.

You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.

Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.

Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.

The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.

Discusion Question Ownership, Control And Cumulative/ Futurology Utopias

Discusion Question Ownership, Control And Cumulative/ Futurology Utopias

Answer each question with properly citation and NOT plagiarisms and good grammar.  minim 350 words 

Ownership, Control, and Cumulative Causation in Power Relations

1-Functional Ownership and Cumulative Causation

Give two examples in your life: one where you have seen or experienced “functional ownership” and one where you have seen or experienced “cumulative causation” of power.  Do you think that either one of these was “fair”?  Explain.

Futurology Utopias, and Dystopias

2- Is it true that what dystopian portrayals miss is that the very nature of human beings, their societies, and cultures, also evolve, and that what seems repulsive to us is merely an expression of our own attachment to our parochial viewpoint. Explain

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You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.

Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.

Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.

The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.

Cognition Exploring the science of the mind

Cognition Exploring the science of the mind

The Organization of Language Language use involves a special type of translation. I might, for example, want to tell you about a happy event in my life, and so I need to translate my ideas about the event into sounds that I can utter. You, in turn, detect those sounds and need to convert them into some sort of comprehension. How does this translation-from ideas to sounds, and then back to ideas-take place?

The answer lies in the fact that language relies on well- defined patterns-patterns in how individual words are used, patterns in how words are put together into phrases. I follow those patterns when I express my ideas, and the same patterns guide you in figuring out what I just said. In essence, then, we’re both using the same “codebook” with the result that (most of the time) you can understand my messages, and I yours.

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But where does this “codebook” come from? And what’s in the codebook? More concretely, what are the patterns of English (or whatever language you speak) that-apparently-we all know and use? As a first step toward tackling these issues, let’s note that language has a well-defined structure, as depicted in Figure 10.1. At the highest level of the structure (not shown in the figure) are the ideas intended by the speaker, or the ideas that the listener derives from the input. These ideas are typically expressed in sentences-coherent sequences of words that express the speaker’s intended meaning. Sentences, in turn, are composed of phrases, which are composed of words. Words are composed of morphemes, the smallest language units that carry meaning. Some morphemes, like “umpire” or “talk,” are units that can stand alone, and they usually refer to particular objects, ideas, or actions. Other morphemes get “bound” onto these “free” morphemes and add information crucial for interpretation. Examples of bound morphemes in Figure 10.1 are the past-tense morpheme “ed” and the plural morpheme “s.” Then, finally, in spoken language, morphemes are conveyed by sounds called phonemes, defined as the smallest unit of sound that serves to distinguish words in a language.

Language is also organized in another way: Within each of these levels, people can combine and recombine the units to produce novel utterances-assembling phonemes into brand-new morphemes or assembling words into brand-new phrases. Crucially, though, not all combinations are possible-so that a new breakfast cereal, for example, might be called “Klof but would probably seem strange to English speakers if it were called “Ngof.” Likewise, someone might utter the novel sentence “I admired the lurking octopi” but almost certainly wouldn’t say, “Octopi admired the I lurking” What lies behind these points? Why are some sequences acceptable-even if strange-while others seem awkward or even unacceptable? The answers to these questions are crucial for any understanding of what language is. Phonology

Let’s use the hierarchy in Figure 10.1 as a way to organize our examination of language. We’ll start at the bottom of the hierarchy-with the sounds of speech.

The Production of Speech

In ordinary breathing, air flows quietly Figure 10.2). There will usually be some sort of sound, though, if this airflow is interrupted or out of the lungs and up through the nose and mouth (see altered, and this fact is crucial for vocal communication.

 For example, within the larynx there are two flaps of muscular tissue called the “vocal folds.” (These structures are also called the “vocal cords,” although they’re not cords at all.) These folds can be rapidly opened and closed, producing a buzzing sort of vibration known as this vibration by putting your palm on your throat while you produce a [z] sound. You’ll feel no vibration, though, if you hiss like a snake, producing a sustained [s] sound. Try it! The [z] sound is voicing. You can feel voiced; the [s] is not.

You can also produce sound by narrowing the air passageway within the mouth itself. For example, hiss like a snake again and pay attention to your tongue’s position. To produce this sound, you placed your tongue’s tip near the roof of your mouth, just behind your teeth:; the [s] sound is the sound of the air rushing through the narrow gap you created.

If the gap is somewhere a different sound results. For example, to produce the [sh] sound (as in “shoot” or “shine”), the tongue is positioned so that it creates a narrow gap a bit farther back in the mouth; air rushing through this gap causes the desired sound. Alternatively, the narrow gap can be more toward the front. Pronounce an [f] sound; in this case, the sound is produced by air rushing between your bottom lip and your top teeth. These various aspects of speech production provide a basis for categorizing speech sounds. We can distinguish sounds, first, according to how the airflow is restricted; this is referred to as manner of production. Thus, air is allowed to move through the nose for some speech sounds but not others. Similarly, for some speech sounds, the flow of air is fully stopped for a moment (e.g., [p], [b], and [t). For other sounds, the air passage is restricted, but air continues to flow (e.g., [f], [z], and [r]).

Second, we can distinguish between sounds that are voiced-produced with the vocal folds vibrating-and those that are not. The sounds of [v], [z], and [n] (to name a few) are voiced; [f], [s], [t], and [k] are unvoiced. (You can confirm this by running the hand-on-throat test while producing each of these sounds.) Finally, sounds can be categorized according to where the airflow is restricted; this is referred to as place of articulation. For example, you close your lips to produce “bilabial” sounds like [p] and [b]; you place your top teeth close to your bottom lip to produce “labiodental” sounds like [f] and [v]; and you place your tongue just behind your upper teeth to produce “alveolar” sounds like [t] and [d].

This categorization scheme enables us to describe any speech sound in terms of a few simple features. For example, what are the features of a [p] sound? First, we specify the manner of production: This sound is produced with air moving through the mouth (not the nose) and witha full interruption to the flow of air. Second, voicing: The [p] sound happens to be unvoiced. Third, place of articulation: The [p] sound is bilabial. These features are all we need to identify the [p], and if any of these features changes, so does the sound’s identity. In English, these features of sound production are combined and recombined to produce 40 or so different phonemes. Other languages use as few as a dozen phonemes; still others use many more. (For example, there are 141 different phonemes in the language of Khoisan, spoken by the Bushmen of Africa; Halle, 1990.) In all cases, though, the phonemes are created by simple combinations of the features just described. The Complexity of Speech Perception This description of speech sounds invites a simple proposal about speech perception. We’ve just said that each speech sound can be defined in terms of a small number of features. Perhaps, then, all a perceiver needs to do is detect these features, and with this done, the speech sounds are identified.

Discussion 1: Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Discussion 1: Cognitive Evaluation Theory

As is often the case, assumptions posited by theorists undergo rigorous examination by peers in their field. Researchers conduct studies whose findings support, refute, or deem as inconclusive a theory’s propositions. An examination of the development of cognitive evaluation theory (CET) (Deci, Cascio, & Krusell, 1975) reveals a controversial history.

Since its inception more than four decades ago, CET has been the focus of intense scrutiny. Researchers faced many challenges that influenced the evolution of CET. Serious questions were raised by a meta-analysis of studies on claims made by proponents of CET. Despite its shortcomings, Pinder (2008) maintains that some elements of CET cannot be readily dismissed since they are “consistent with various elements of other leading theories of work motivation” (p. 91).

For this Discussion, select two challenges that influenced the evolution of cognitive evaluation theory. Think about a current or previous job, and then consider some of the factors CET identifies that might have decreased or increased your intrinsic motivation. If you have never worked, consider factors that might have decreased or increased your intrinsic motivation in your degree program.

With these thoughts in mind:

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Post by Day 3 a description of the two challenges you selected and explain how each influenced the evolution of cognitive evaluation theory. Then describe at least two factors that have facilitated or interfered with your intrinsic motivation at your current or previous job, and use CET to explain how.

Note: If you have never worked, describe at least two factors that have facilitated or interfered with your intrinsic motivation in your degree program, and use CET to explain how.

You must proofread your paper. But do not strictly rely on your computer’s spell-checker and grammar-checker; failure to do so indicates a lack of effort on your part and you can expect your grade to suffer accordingly. Papers with numerous misspelled words and grammatical mistakes will be penalized. Read over your paper – in silence and then aloud – before handing it in and make corrections as necessary. Often it is advantageous to have a friend proofread your paper for obvious errors. Handwritten corrections are preferable to uncorrected mistakes.

Use a standard 10 to 12 point (10 to 12 characters per inch) typeface. Smaller or compressed type and papers with small margins or single-spacing are hard to read. It is better to let your essay run over the recommended number of pages than to try to compress it into fewer pages.

Likewise, large type, large margins, large indentations, triple-spacing, increased leading (space between lines), increased kerning (space between letters), and any other such attempts at “padding” to increase the length of a paper are unacceptable, wasteful of trees, and will not fool your professor.

The paper must be neatly formatted, double-spaced with a one-inch margin on the top, bottom, and sides of each page. When submitting hard copy, be sure to use white paper and print out using dark ink. If it is hard to read your essay, it will also be hard to follow your argument.